Smartphone

A smartphone is a mobile device that combines the calling and texting functions of a telephone with the computing power, touchscreen and internet access of a small computer. It typically includes cameras, sensors, and the ability to install apps that extend what it can do. For many people it is the primary way they go online, take photographs, pay for goods and manage daily life.

What distinguishes a smartphone from an older "feature phone" is not any single component but the combination of a general-purpose operating system, a large touch display and constant data connectivity. That mix lets the device change roles simply by running different software.

From phones to pocket computers

Mobile telephony itself dates to the 1970s and 1980s, when the first cellular networks and handheld phones appeared. Through the 1990s, phones gained text messaging and simple data services, and a few models added email, calendars and basic apps. These "personal digital assistants" and early data phones hinted at what was coming but were limited by small screens and slow networks.

The turning point came around 2007, when a touchscreen phone with a finger-friendly interface and a full web browser demonstrated that a pocket device could offer an experience closer to a computer. App stores soon let third parties distribute software directly to users, and by the early 2010s smartphones had spread rapidly across the world.

Hardware components

A modern smartphone packs many subsystems into a slim body. A system-on-chip integrates the processor, graphics and modem. Memory and flash storage hold running programs and files. A battery, usually lithium-based, powers the device; charging and efficiency are ongoing design challenges. Radios handle cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and satellite positioning. Cameras, microphones, accelerometers, gyroscopes and other sensors let the phone sense its surroundings.

Software and apps

Two operating system families dominate the market, each with its own app store and developer tools. Apps range from messaging and maps to banking, games and productivity. Because apps run with access to cameras, location and contacts, permissions and privacy have become major issues. Operating systems now require users to grant sensitive access explicitly and notify them when apps use it.

Regular updates deliver new features and security fixes, but support periods vary, and older devices may stop receiving them — a real concern given how much personal data phones hold.

Connectivity and networks

Smartphones depend on cellular networks that advanced through successive generations, each offering faster data. Wi-Fi offloads traffic when available, and Bluetooth links accessories such as earbuds and watches. Global positioning and related satellite systems support navigation, while near-field communication enables contactless payments.

Social and economic impact

Smartphones widened access to information, banking and communication, especially in regions where fixed infrastructure was scarce. They changed commerce, media and photography. They also brought concerns: distraction and shortened attention, the spread of misinformation, addictive design, and health effects such as disrupted sleep. Repair costs, short product lifecycles and the mining of materials for components raise environmental questions.

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